The Rise of the Castellans
Local lords—castellans—fortified their territories with stone castles, symbolizing autonomous dominium. They administered justice, levied taxes, and waged private wars. Feudalism, as a system of personal bonds (vassalage), emerged during this time.
The vassal swore loyalty to a lord in exchange for a fief—a grant of land. In turn, the lord owed protection and support. This system created a pyramid of power, from peasant to king, though in practice, it was often messy and contested.
Lords and Law
The legal basis of dominium rested on custom and charter. A lord's authority was often reinforced through written grants, investiture ceremonies, and court rituals. Peasants under a lord’s dominion (serfs or villeins) owed labor services, rents, and obedience. Lords, in return, were expected to provide protection—though exploitation was common.
The Zenith of Feudal Power (11th–12th Centuries)
By the 11th century, dominium had reached its zenith. Europe was dominated by powerful aristocrats and religious magnates who held vast territories and wielded private armies.
The Norman Lords
The Norman Conquest of England in 1066 under William the Conqueror exemplifies the consolidation of lordship. William redistributed English land to his Norman followers, binding them through fealty and landholding. The Domesday Book of 1086 reflected his desire to catalogue and control dominium across the kingdom.
In Normandy, southern Italy, and Sicily, Norman lords established feudal polities, often with greater efficiency than their contemporaries. Their rule combined brutal military dominance with legal and administrative innovation.
The Capetians and Plantagenets
In France, the Capetian kings (starting with Hugh Capet in 987) slowly expanded royal dominium from the Île-de-France outward, often through marriage, war, or clerical support.
In England, the Plantagenet dynasty emerged with Henry II (r. 1154–1189), whose dominion extended from the Scottish border to the Pyrenees. His legal reforms (common law, royal courts) challenged baronial independence and sought to centralize power.
Church and Spiritual Dominion
The Gregorian Reform Movement (11th century) and Investiture Controversy (1075–1122) reshaped ecclesiastical dominium. Popes like Gregory VII claimed supremacy over kings, asserting spiritual authority in temporal affairs. Bishops and abbots were no longer mere feudal barons but representatives of the universal Church, independent of lay investiture. shutdown123